Comparative Public Policy and Religious Pressure Groups in Turkey and Pakistan

Ganji, Nader; Ashtarian, Kiomars

doi:10.29252/jep.1.1.95

Comparative Public Policy and Religious Pressure Groups in Turkey and Pakistan

Document Type : Original Article

Authors

Nader Ganji ¹
Kiomars Ashtarian ²

¹ , Faculty of Law and Political Sciences, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran

² Associate Professor of Public Policy, Faculty of Law and Political Sciences, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran

10.29252/jep.1.1.95

Abstract

Religious institutions have currently emerged as more powerful actors than ever before in many Muslim countries. This matter necessitates reassessing the role of organized religion in policy-making processes in such countries. This paper is a comparative study, analyzing the role of the religious institutions, as pressure groups, in government policy in Pakistan and Turkey. Since there have been very few research projects working on comparative studies on religious pressure groups in Muslim-majority countries, this paper seeks to fill the gap through secondary research. The findings indicate that in Turkey, the common aims and interests have bound the Islamic parties and institutions together, currently emerging as a powerful political actor, challenging the strict secular system of the country. Nonetheless, the Pakistani institutions have increasingly exchanged violence for the implementation of Islamic law. The Turkish Islamic movement have a more united structure than the Pakistani ones. Nonetheless, the role and status of such groups have significantly changed over time in both countries. Likewise, amongst the two countries’ religious institutions, the Turkish mostly use civic tactics to gain power from the people, while the Pakistani ones undertake sabotage activities as leverage against the government.

Keywords

20.1001.1.27171485.2020.1.1.8.1

References

Abbas, H. (2006). Profiles of Pakistan’s Seven Tribal Agencies. Terrorism Monitor, 4(20): 1-5.

Aksoy, S. (2005). End-of-life Decision Making in Turkey. In R. H. Blank, & J. C. Merrick , End-of-life Decision Making: A Cross-national Study (pp. 183-196). Cambridge: The MIT Press.

Alam, M. (1986). The Crisis of Empire in Mughal North India: Awadh and Punjab 1707-48. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.

Albert, S., & Whetten, D. A. (1985). Organizational Identity. In B. M. Staw, & L. L. Cummings, Research in Organizational Behavior (pp. 263-295). New York: Emerald Group.

Almond, G. A., & Coleman, J. S. (1960). The Politics of the Developing Areas. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Ansari, S. H. (2011). Forced Modernization and Public Policy: A Case Study of Ayub Khan Era (1958-69). Journal of Political Studies, 18(1): 45-60.

Ayubi, N. M. (1991). Political Islam: Religion and Politics in the Arab World. . New York: Routledge.

Bac, M. M. (2005). Turkey’s Political Reforms and the Impact of the European Union. South European Society & Politics, 10: 16-30.

Barnett, M. N., & Fineemore, M. (1999, Autumn). The Politics, Power, and Pathologies of International Organizations. International Organization, 53(04): 699-732.

Blood, P. R. (1995). Country Profile: Pakist an. (R. F. Nyrop, Ed.) Retrieved from Library of Congress: https://www.loc.gov/collections/country-studies/about-this-collection/

Brown, R. K., & Brown, R. E. (2003). Faith and Works: Church-based Social Capital Resources and African American Political Activism. Social Forces, 82(2): 617-641.

Cagaptay, S. (2007). Secularism and Foreign Policy in Turkey: New Elections, Troubling Trends. Washinton: The Washington Institute for Near East Policy.

Cagaptay, S. (2011). Turkey 2020. New York: New York University's Center for Global Affairs.

Carsten, A. (2008). On the Applicability of the Most Similar Systems Design and the Most Different Systems Design in Comparative Research. International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 11(5), 389-401.

Choudhury, G. W. (1956). The Constitution of Pakistan. Pacific Affairs, 29(3): 243-252.

Cinar, M., & Duran, B. (2008). The Specific Evolution of Contemporary Political Islam in Turkey and Its 'Difference'. In U. Cizre, Secular and Islamic Politics in Turkey (pp. 17-41). Oxon: Routledge.

Consitution the Second Amendment. (1974, September 17). Constitution (Second Amendment) Act, 1974. Retrieved from The Constitution of Pakistan: http://www.pakistani.org/pakistan/constitution/amendments/2amendment.html

Coxall, W. N. (2013). Pressure Groups in British Politics. Oxon: Routledge.

Diyanet. (2011). Number of Mosques. Retrieved from Presidency of Religious Affairs of Turkey:http://www.diyanet.gov.tr/turkish/tanitim/istatistiksel_tablolar/2_cami/2_1_ _cami_sayisi.xls

Dowding, K. (2003). Resources, Power and Systematic Luck: A Response to Barry. Politics, Philosophy & Economics, 2(3), 305-322.

Driessen, M. D. (2014). Religion and Democratization: Framing Religious and Political Identities in Muslim and Catholic Societies. New York: Oxford University Press.

Feldman, H. (1967). Revolution in Pakistan: A Study of the Martial Law Administration. London: Oxford University Press.

Fuller, G. E. (1991). Islamic Fundamentalism in Pakistan. Santa Monica: National Defense Research Institute.

Ghazali, A. S. (1999). Islamic Pakistan; Illusions and Reality. Hayward: National Book Club.

Glasse, C. (2001). The New Encyclopedia of Islam. Walnut Creek: AltaMira Press.

Gole, N. (1996). The Forbidden Modern: Civilization and Veiling. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.

Grare, F. (2006). Islam, Militarism and the 2007–2008 Elections in Pakistan; South Asia Project. Washington: Carnegie.

Guiora, A. (2013). Freedom from Religion: Rights and National Security. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Gurcan, E. C., & Peker, E. (2014). Turkey's Gezi Park Demonstrations of 2013: A Marxian Analysis of the Political Moment. Socialism and Democracy, 28(1): 70-89.

Haddad, Y. Y., Voll, J. O., & Esposito, J. L. (1991). The Contemporary Islamic Revival: A Critical Survey and Bibliography. Westport: Greenwood.

Haqqani, H. (2005). Pakistan : Between Mosque and Military. Lahore: Vangaurd Books.

Haqqani, H. (2005). The Role of Islam in Pakistan's Future. The Washington Quarterly, 28(1): 85-96.

Heywood, A. (2011). Essentials of UK Politics. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

Hollenbach, D. S. (1993). Contexts of the Political Role of Religion: Civil Society and Culture. San Diego Law Review, 30(4): 877-901.

Howenstein, N. (2008). The Jihadi Terrain in Pakistan: An Introduction to the Sunni Jihadi Groups in Pakistan and Kashmir. Bradford: Pakistan Security Research Unit, Department of Peace Studies, University of Bradford.

Hughes, K. (2004). Turkey and the European Union: Just Another Enlargement? Brussels: Friends of Europe.

Hussain, Z. (2010). The Scorpion's Tail: The Relentless Rise of Islamic Militants in Pakistan and How It Threatens America. New York: Free Press.

Hussain, M., & Hussain, A. (1993). Pakistan; Problems of Governance. New Delhi: Vanguard Books.

Jamal, A. (2005). The Political Participation and Engagement of Muslim Americans; Mosque Involvement and Group Consciousness. American Political Research, 33(4), 521-544.

Kadioglu, A. (2005). Civil Society, Islam and Democracy in Turkey: A Study of Three Islamic Non-Governmental Organizations. The Muslim World, 95(1): 23-41.

Karakas, C. (2007). Turkey: Islam and Laicism. (K. Horn, Trans.) Frankfurt: Peace Research Institute Frankfurt.

Kennett, P. (2001). Comparative Social Policy; Theory and Research. Buckingham: Open University Press.

Kumar, R. (1990). Problem of Communalism in India. New Delhi: Mittal.

Kuru, A. T. (2009). Secularism and State Policies Toward Religion: The United States, France and Turkey. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Kuru, A. T. (2012). The Rise and Fall of Military Tutelage in Turkey: Fears of Islamism, Kurdism, and Communism. Insight Turkey, 14(2): 37-57.

Lincoln, C. E., & Mamiya, L. H. (1990). The Black Church in the African American Experience. Durham: Duke University Press.

McDaniel, E. L. (2008). Politics in the Pews: the Political Mobilization of Black Churches. Michigan: University of Michigan Press.

Misra, A., & Clarke, M. E. (2012). Pakistan's Stability Paradox: Domestic, Regional and International Dimensions. Oxon: Routledge.

Murat, A., & Hawks, B. B. (2012). Media and Democracy in Turkey: Toward a Model of Neoliberal Media Autocracy. Middle East Journal of Culture and Communication, 5(3): 302–321.

Narli, N. (1999). The Rise of the Islamist Movement in Turkey. Middle East Review of International Affairs, 3(3): 38–48.

Nasr, S. V. (1994). The Vanguard of the Islamic Revolution: The Jamaʻat-i Islami of Pakistan. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Nawab, M. (2009). The Ulama in Pakistani Politics. Journal of South Asian Studies, 32(2), 230-247.

Nazeer, A. (2004). Political Parties in Pakistan: A Long Way Ahead. Islamabad: Khursheed.

Newberg, P. R. (2002). Judging the State: Courts and Constitutional Politics in Pakistan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

O’Neil, P. (2004). Essentials of Comparative Politics. New York: Norton.

Poushter, J. (2015). The Divide over Islam and National Laws in the Muslim World. Washington: Pew Research Center.

Rabasa, A., & Larrabee, F. S. (2008). The Rise of Political Islam in Turkey. Santa Monica: RAND (Research and Development).

Sahliyeh, E. (1990). Religious Resurgence and Political Modernization. In E. Sahliyeh, Religious Resurgence and Politics in the Contemporary World (pp. 3-17). Albany: State University of New York.

Singh, Y. P. (2015). Islam in India and Pakistan - A Religious History. New Delhi: Alfa Editions.

Sisk, T. D. (1992). Islam and Democracy: Religion, Politics, and Power in the Middle East. Washington: United States Institute of Peace.

Somer, M. (2007). Moderate Islam and Secularist Opposition in Turkey: Implications for the World, Muslims and Secular Democracy. Third World Quarterly, 28(7): 1271–1289.

Sonmez, M. (2013). City, Capital, and the Gezi Resistance. Ankara: Nota Bene.

Stern, J. (2001). Meeting with the Muj. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 57(1), 40-47.

Swami, P. (2003). Terrorism in Jammu and Kashmir in Theory and Practice. India Review, 2(3): 55-88.

Tachau, F., & Heper, M. (1983). The State, Politics, and the Military in Turkey. Comparative Politics, 16(1), 17-33.

The Court of Inquiry. (1954). REPORT of THE COURT OF INQUIRY constituted under PUNJAB ACT II OF 1954 to enquire into the PUNJAB DISTURBANCES OF 1953. http://www.thepersecution.org/dl/report_1953.pdf. Lahore: The Superintendent, Government printing, Punjab.

Toprak, B. (1988). The State, Politics and Religion in Turkey. In M. Heper, & A. Evin, State, Democracy, and the Military: Turkey in the 1980s (pp. 119-135). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.

Ugur, E. (2007). Religion as a Source of Social Capital? The Gulen Movement in the Public Sphere. In L. J. Cantori, M. K. Hermansen, & D. B. Capes, Muslim World in Transition: Contributions of the Gulen Movement (pp. 152-162). London: Leeds Metropolitan University Press.

Wald, K. D., Owen, D. E., & Hill, S. S. (1998). Churches as Political Communities. The American Political Science Review, 82(2), 531-548.

Walsh, D. (2010, January 11). Pakistan suffers record number of deaths due to militant violence. Retrieved from The Guardian:https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/jan/

/11/pakistan-militant-violence-death-toll

Weekes, R. V. (1964). Pakistan: Birth and Growth of A Muslim Nation. Princeton: David Van Nostrand.

Wells, A. G. (2015). Pakistan. Retrieved from U.S. Department of State: https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/171759.pdf

White, J. T. (2008). Vigilante Islamism in Pakistan. Current Trends in Islamist Ideology, 7(1), 50-56.

Winthrop, R., & Graff, C. (2010). Beyond Madrasas: Assessing the Links between Education and Militancy. Brookings: Center for Universal Education.

Wirsing, R. G. (2004). Political Islam, Pakistan, and the Geopolitics of Religious Identity. In Y. Sato, Growth and Governance in Asia (pp. 165-179). Honolulu: Asia-Pacific Center for Security Studies.

Yavuz, M. H. (2009). Secularism and Muslim Democracy in Turkey. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Yesilada, B., & Rubin, B. (2011). Islamization of Turkey Under the AKP Rule. Oxon: Routledge.

Yildirim, B. (2012). Transformation of Public Squares in Istanbul between 1938-1949. 15th International Planning History Society Conference. Sao Paulo: FAUUSP.

Zeidan, D. (1999). The Alevi of Anatolia. Middle East Review of International Affairs, 3(4): 74-89.